INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS

     

 Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or-in the case of sign languages-the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or signs. The field of phonetics is a multiple layered subject of linguistics that focuses on speech.
In the case of oral languages there are three basic areas of study:
Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds by the articulatory and vocal tract by the speaker
Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speaker to the listener
Auditory phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the listener

Phonetic symbols for English

This is the standard set of phonemic symbols for English (RP and similar accents).

Consonants p pen, copy, happen b back, baby, job t tea, tight, button d day, ladder, odd k key, clock, school g get, giggle, ghost t? church, match, nature d? judge, age, soldier f fat, coffee, rough, photo v view, heavy, move ? thing, author, path ð this, other, smooth s soon, cease, sister z zero, music, roses, buzz ? ship, sure, national ? pleasure, vision h hot, whole, ahead m more, hammer, sum n nice, know, funny, sun ? ring, anger, thanks, sung l light, valley, feel r right, wrong, sorry, arrange j yet, use, beauty, few w wet, one, when, queen ? (glottal stop) department, football

Vowels ? kit, bid, hymn, minute e dress, bed, head, many æ trap, bad ? lot, odd, wash ? strut, mud, love, blood ? foot, good, put i? fleece, sea, machine e? face, day, break a? price, high, try ?? choice, boy u? goose, two, blue, group ?? goat, show, no a? mouth, now ?? near, here, weary e? square. fair, various ?? start, father ?? thought, law, north, war ?? poor, jury, cure ?? nurse, stir, learn, refer ? about, common, standard i happy, radiate. glorious u thank you, influence, situation n? suddenly, cotton l? middle, metal ' (stress mark)

In linguistics, intonation is variation of spoken pitch that is not used to distinguish words; instead it is used for a range of functions such as indicating the attitudes and emotions of the speaker, signalling the difference between statement and question, and between different types of question, focussing attention on important elements of the spoken message and also helping to regulate conversational interaction. It contrasts with tone, in which pitch variation in some languages does distinguish words, either lexically or grammatically.

Functions of Intonation: 
All vocal languages use pitch pragmatically in intonation - for instance for emphasis, to convey surprise or irony, or to pose a question. Tonal languages such as Chinese and Hausa use intonation in addition to using pitch for distinguishing words

• attitudinal function (for expressing emotions and attitudes)
• grammatical function (to identify grammatical structure)
• focusing (to show what information in the utterance is new and what is already known)
• discourse function (to show how clauses and sentences go together in spoken discourse)
• psychological function (to organize speech into units that are easy to perceive, memorize and perform)
• indexical function (to act as a marker of personal or social identity) 

Stressing means that speakers of English make certain syllables and words:
  louder
  longer
  higher in pitch
Basically, stressing means to emphasize a sound. Every word in English has just one syllable with a primary stress or emphasis. However, it is not only essential to stress certain syllables and words, but we must also de-stress other syllables and words. De-stressing means that speakers of English make certain syllables and words:
  more relaxed
  weaker

Examples
Engineer -> [en g? NEER] (2nd syllable is de-stressed; 3rd syllable is stressed)
English -> [ING glish] (1st syllable is stressed; 2nd syllable is slightly de-stressed)
Photograph -> [PHO d? graf] (1st syllable is stressed, 2nd syllable de-stressed, 3rd syllable is secondary stress)

Stressing and de-stressing syllables and words gives us rhythm in English.
Rhythm is the musicality of English - the ups and downs and the connected speech and the linking of words, which together, change how we say sentences.Remember, speaking with correct rhythm (musicality) is essential to being understood when you speak! Rhythm comes from the combination of the two types of stress in American English:
  1) Syllable stress in words (as discussed above)
  2) Word stress in sentences
This is a huge area to explain.But some general rules are there and some are quoted below (exceptions are there).

• With verbs of two syllables, if the second syllable of the verb contains a long vowel or a diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, the second syllable is stressed.
  Example :apply, attract, complete, arrive, resist
• With verbs of two syllables, if the final syllable contains a short vowel and one (or no) final consonant, the first syllable is stressed.
  Examples:enter, open, equal, borrow, profit
• There are some suffixes (or word endings) that usually carry stress. Words with these endings usually carry stress on the last syllable:
  
  

  -ain	entertain
  -ee	refugee
  -eer	mountaineer
  -ese	Portuguese
  -ette	cigarette (NB American English would stress the first syllable)
  -esque	picturesque



• The main or primary stress usually falls on the syllable before these endings:
  
  

  -ion	decision, application
  -ious / -eous	contentious, courageous
  -ity	simplicity
  -ive	extensive
  -graphy	photography, biography
  -meter	biology
  -logy	thermometer

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• In compound words or words made up of two elements, there are again some general patterns.
  • If the first part of the word is broadly speaking a noun, then the first element will normally carry more stress:
    Examples : typewriter, car ferry, suitcase, tea cup
  • If the first part is broadly speaking an adjective, then the second element will carry more stress:
    Examples : loudspeaker, bad-tempered, black market, young learner