ENGLISH CONSONANTS
According to Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 9th edition © Oxford University Press, 2015, the word consonant comes from Middle English (in the sense ‘letter representing a consonant’): via Old French from Latin consonare ‘sound together’, from con- ‘with’ + sonare ‘to sound’ (from sonus ‘sound’). In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with the complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Consonants are produced with some form of restriction or closing in the vocal tract that hinders the airflow from the lungs. According to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, Fourth edition, by Jack C. RICHARDS and RICHARD SCHMIDT, in which the term ‘consonant’ is defined as:
“A speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked (stop), partially blocked (lateral) or where the opening is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction (fricative). With some consonants (nasals) the airstream is blocked in the mouth but allowed to escape through the nose.”
And according to DAVID CRYSTAL who defines consonants in his ‘A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th Edition.’
“Consonants can be defined in term of phonetics. Phonetically, they are sounds made by a closure or narrowing of the vocal tract so that the airflow is either completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel, and as a result, are most conveniently described in terms of place and manner of articulation.”
Then, the consonant is also defined by Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 9th edition published by Oxford University Press, 2015:
“A speech sound made by completely or partly stopping the flow of air being breathed out through the mouth.”
The difference between vowels and consonants:
The sounds of all languages fall into two classes: Vowels and consonants are sounds, not letters. Depending on accent and how thinly one slices them, there are about 20 vowels and 24 consonants. So, in phonetics, the terms consonant and vowel refer to types of sounds, not to the letters that represent them. In speaking of the alphabet, one may call “a” a vowel and “c” a consonant, but that means only that one uses the letter “a” to represent vowel sounds and the letter “c” to represent consonant sounds. A vowel is a speech sound made with one’s mouth fairly open, the nucleus of a spoken syllable whereas consonant is a sound made with one’s mouth fairly closed. When one talks, consonants break up the stream of vowels (functioning as syllable onsets and codas), so that one does not sound like one has just been to the dentist for four fillings and the anaesthetic has not worn off yet. Consonants require more precise articulation than vowels, which is why children find them harder to learn, and often end up in speech therapy after having become so cross at not being understood that they have started hitting people.
Therefore English consonants are classified along three parameters: Place of articulation { sounds differ in where they are produced in the oral cavity and in what articulators are used, e.g. “f” [f] vs. “th” [θ]} and Manner of articulation { sounds differ in their degree of constriction, e.g. “t” [t] vs. “s” [s]} and Voicing {sounds differ in whether they involve vibration of the vocal folds or no vibration of the vocal folds, e.g.”[s] vs.“z” [z]}. Using a writing system based on English (or any other language) does not allow to capture phonetic differences in speech. One must refer to how the sounds are physically produced.
(i) Place Of Articulation
“Lolita, light of my life, fire of my loins. My sin, my soul. Lo-lee-ta: the tip of the tongue taking a trip of three steps down the palate to tap, at three, on the teeth. Lo. Lee. Ta.”
VLADIMIR NABOKOV, Lolita, 1955
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Places of articulation is a movement of the tongue and lips can create these constrictions and by forming the oral cavity in different ways, different sounds can be produced. Once the air has passed through the larynx, it comes up and out through the mouth and/or the nose. Most consonant sounds are produced by using the tongue and other parts of the mouth to constrict, in some way, the shape of the oral cavity through which the air is passing. The terms used to describe many sounds are those which denote the place of articulation of the sound: that is, the location inside the mouth at which the constriction takes place.
What one needs is a slice of head. If one cracks ahead right down the middle, one will be able to see which parts of the oral cavity are crucially involved in speech production. To describe the place of articulation of most consonant sounds, one can start at the front of the mouth and work back. One can also keep the voiced-voiceless distinction in mind and begin using the symbols of the phonetic alphabet for specific sounds. These symbols will be enclosed within square brackets [ ].
Bilabial
These are sounds formed using both (= bi) upper and lower lips (= labia). The initial sounds in the words pat, bat and mat are all bilabials. They are represented by the symbols [p], which is voiceless, and [b] and [m], which are voiced. One can also describe the [w] sound found at the beginning of the way, walk and world as a bilabial.
Labiodental
These are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip. The initial sounds of the words fat and vat and the final sounds in the words safe and save are labiodentals. They are represented by the symbols [f], which is voiceless, and [v], which is voiced. Notice that the final sound in a word cough, and the initial sound in the photo, despite the spelling differences, are both pronounced as [f].
Dental
These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. The initial sound of thin and the final sound of the bath are both voiceless dentals. The symbol used for this sound is [θ], usually referred to as ‘theta’. It is the symbol one will use for the first and last sounds in the phrase three teeth.
The voiced dental is represented by the symbol [d], usually called ‘eth’. This sound is found in the pronunciation of the initial sound of common words like the, there, then and thus. It is also the middle consonant sound in feather and the final sound of bathe.
The term ‘interdentals’ is sometimes used for these consonants when they are pronounced with the tongue tip between (= inter) the upper and lower teeth.
Alveolar
These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and above the upper teeth. The initial sounds in the top, dip, sit, zoo and nut are all alveolars. The symbols for these sounds are easy to remember – [t], [d], [s], [z], [n]. Of these, [t] and [s] are voiceless whereas [d], [z] and [n] are voiced.
It may be clear that the final sounds of the words bus and buzz have to be [s] and [z] respectively, but what about the final sound of the word raise? The spelling is misleading because the final sound in this word is voiced and so must be represented by [z]. Notice also that despite the different spelling of knot and not, both of these words are pronounced with [n] as the initial sound.
Other alveolars are the [l] sound found at the beginning of words such as lap and lit, and the [r] sound at the beginning of right and write.
Post-alveolar
These sounds are made by raising the blade of the tongue towards the part of the palate just behind the alveolar ridge. Examples [ ʃ, t ʃ] pressure, batch (voiceless) and [ʒ, dʒ] pleasure, badge (voiced).
Palatal/ Hard palate/Palate
If one feels back behind the alveolar ridge, one should find a hard part in the roof of one’s mouth. This is called the hard palate or just the palate. Sounds which are produced with the tongue and the palate are called palatals (or). Examples of palatals are the initial sounds in the words shout and child, which are both voiceless. The sh sound is represented as [ʃ] and the ch sound is represented as [tʃ]. So, the word shoe-brush begins and ends with the voiceless palatal sound [ʃ] and the word church begins and ends with the other voiceless palatal sound [tʃ].
One of the voiced palatals, represented by the symbol [ʒ], is not very common in English but can be found at the middle consonant sound in words like treasure and pleasure, or the final sound in rouge. The other voiced palatal is [d ʒ], which is the initial sound in words like joke and gem. The word judge and the name George both begin and end with the sound [d ʒ] despite the obvious differences in spelling.
One other voiced palatal is the [j] sound used at the beginning of words like you and yet.
Velar/Soft palate/Velum
Even further back in the roof of the mouth, beyond the hard palate, one will find a soft area, which is called the soft palate, or the vellum. Sounds produced with the back of the tongue against the velum are called velars. There is a voiceless velar sound, represented by the symbol [k], which occurs not only in the kid and kill, but is also the initial sound in car and cold. Despite the variety in spelling, this [k] sound is both the initial and final sound in the words cook, kick and coke. The voiced velar sound heard at the beginning of words like go, gun and give is represented by [g]. This is also the final sound in words like bag, mug and, despite the spelling, plague.
The velum can be lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity and thereby produce another voiced velar which is represented by the symbol [ŋ], typically referred to as ‘angma’. In written English, this sound is normally spelt as the two letters ‘ng’. So, the [ŋ] sound is at the end of sing, sang and despite the spelling, tongue. It occurs twice in the form ringing. Be careful not to be misled by the spelling of a word like bang – it ends with the [ŋ] sound only. There is no [g] sound in this word.
Glottal
There is one sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the beginning of have and house and, for most speakers, as the first sound in who and whose. This sound is usually described as a voiceless glottal. The ‘glottis’ is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx. When the glottis is open, as in the production of other voiceless sounds, and there is no manipulation of the air passing out of the mouth, the sound produced is that represented by [h].
Charting Consonant Sounds
Having described in some detail the place of articulation of English consonant sounds, one can summarize the basic information in the accompanying chart. Along the top of the chart are the different labels for places of articulation and, under each, the labels −V (= voiceless) and +V (= voiced). Also included in this chart, on the left-hand side, is a set of terms used to describe ‘manner of articulation’ which one will discuss in the following section.
(ii) Manner Of Articulation
In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators (speech organs such as the tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech sound. One parameter of manner is a stricture, that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another. So far, one has concentrated on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. One can also describe the same sounds in terms of how they are articulated. Such a description is necessary if one wants to be able to differentiate between some sounds which, in the preceding discussion, one has placed in the same category. For example, one can say that [t] and [s] are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do they differ? They differ in their manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound is one of a set of sounds called stops and the [s] sound is one of a set called fricatives. Now, one can discuss the types of the manner of articulation with details.
Stop/Plosive
Of the sounds one has already mentioned, the set [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g] are all produced by some form of ‘stopping’ of the airstream (very briefly) then letting it go abruptly. This type of consonant sound, resulting from a blocking or stopping effect on the airstream, is called a stop (or a ‘plosive’).A full description of the [t] sound at the beginning of a word like ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop. In some discussions, only the manner of articulation is mentioned, as when it is said that the word bed, for example, begins and ends with voiced stops.
Fricative
The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f], [v], [θ], [d], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ] involves almost blocking the airstream and having the air push through the very narrow opening. As the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives. If you put your open hand in front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s] in particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed out. The usual pronunciation of the word fish begins and ends with the voiceless fricatives [f] and [ʃ]. The word those begins and ends with the voiced fricatives [d] and [z].
Affricate
If you combine a brief stopping of the airstream with an obstructed release which causes some friction, you will be able to produce the sounds [tʃ] and [dʒ]. These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the words cheap and jeep. In the first of these, there is a voiceless affricate [tʃ], and in the second, a voiced affricate [dʒ].
Nasal
Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing airflow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce [m], [n], and [ŋ], the sounds are described as nasals. These three sounds are all voiced. The words morning, knitting and name begin and end with nasals.
Liquid/ Lateral
The initial sounds in led and red are described as liquids. They are both voiced. The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the airstream flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge. The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge.
Glide/ Approximant
The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced and occur at the beginning of we, wet, you and yes. These sounds are typically produced with the tongue in motion (or ‘gliding’) to or from the position of a vowel and are sometimes called semi-vowels or approximants. The sound [h], as in Hi or hello, is voiceless and can be classified as a glide because of the way it combines with other sounds. In some descriptions, it is treated as a fricative.
(iii) Voicing
The larynx is in the neck, at a point commonly called Adam's apple. It is like a box, inside which are the vocal folds, two thick flaps of muscle. In a normal position, the vocal folds are apart and one can say that the glottis is open (figure a). When the edges of the vocal folds touch each other, air passing through the glottis will usually cause vibration (figure b). This opening and closing is repeated regularly and gives what is called Voicing.
The only distinction between the first sounds of sue and zoo, for example, is that [s] is voiceless, [z] is voiced. The same goes for few and view, [f] is voiceless, [v] is voiced. If one now says [ssssszzzzzsssss] or [fffffvvvvvfffff] one can either hear the vibrations of the [zzzzz] or [vvvvv] by sticking one’s fingers into ears, or one can feel them by touching the front of one’s larynx (the Adam's Apple).
This distinction is quite important in English, as there are many pairs of sounds that differ only invoicing. In the examples below the first sound is voiceless, the other is voiced: pie/buy, try/dry, clue/glue, chew/Jew, thigh/thy. This distinction can also be made in between two vowels: rapid/rabid, metal/medal, or at the end of a word: pick/pig, leaf/leave, rich/ridge. In English the following consonants are voiced: b, d, g, v, ð, z, ʒ, l, r, j, w, dʒ, m, n, and ŋ and the following ones are unvoiced: p, t, k, f, s, θ, r, h, and t ʃ.
References
The Study of Language, Third Edition by GEORGE YULE
Phonetics and Phonology by CLAIRE-A. FOREL and GENOVEVA PUSKÁS
Introducing English Linguistics by CHARLES F. MEYER.
An Introduction to Language, 9th Edition by Victoria FROMKIN, ROBERT
RODMAN and NINA HYAMS
Introduction to English Language & Linguistics by LÁSZLÓ VARGA
Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics,
Fourth Edition, by Jack C. RICHARDS and RICHARD SCHMIDT.
A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics 6th Edition.’ By DAVID CRYSTAL.
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 9th Edition, published by Oxford
University Press, 2015
Various Education Websites for Online Search like Wikipedia.com
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